With dairy margins under pressure from increased feed, fuel and crop costs, managers are looking for low-cost ways to improve overall efficiency of milk production. Water is the most essential and least costly component of the diet. We keep a close eye on dry matter intake for signs that something is “off” while water intake continues mostly unnoticed in the background. Practical steps can be taken to ensure that water intake is not limiting for cow comfort and milk production.
Heat stress is a drain on performance, reducing feed intake, milk production and feed efficiency. Furthermore, heat stress of dry and lactating cows has been shown to reduce performance of the cow, her daughters, and granddaughters (La Porta and Dahl, 2022). Water requirements increase 30% or more during heat stress, and the cow’s water based internal cooling system requires full hydration to operate at full capacity. Cows cannot remain fully hydrated if water intake is compromised by lack of access, flow or quality.
Water plays a crucial role in heat dissipation through expiration (lungs), evaporation (skin) and excretion (urine) from the body. The water molecule has a uniquely high heat capacity, the ability to absorb and transfer heat, making it ideal for both internal and external cooling of cows.
A classic study, McDowell et al., 1969, found that early lactation cows under heat stress (90 OF, THI=75) had increased rectal temperature, reduced feed intake and fecal water output, a 28 percent increase in water intake and a 50-60 percent increase in skin surface and respiratory evaporation. In addition, the efficient of use of digested energy for milk production was reduced by 30 percent.
The metabolic heat load of today’s high producing cow is significantly greater than in 1969, so optimum water consumption is even more important in combatting heat stress. Heat stress increases the water requirement of cows by 30 percent or more (NRC, 2022). High producing (99 lbs/day) cows require about 30 gallons of water under temperate conditions and 40 gallons or more under heat stress (NRC, 2021), with an increase in the length and frequency of drinking bouts (Tsai et al., 2020).
Heat stress is compounded by increased stocking density. Kansas State workers (Smith et al. 2002) reported that increasing stocking density from 100 to 130 percent of capacity reduced available water space from 3.6 in/cow to 2.8 in/cow in 4-row free stall barns and from 2.25 in/cow to 1.7 in/cow in 6-row barns. Most expert sources cite 3.5 inches of linear water space per cow as adequate, but farm cow comfort assessments have found that, on average, this goal is not being met (Table 1). As resources per cow shrink, aggressive behaviors by dominant cows increase, including dominant behavior around waterers. Subordinate cows and 1st lactation cows are most affected. Excessive time away from pen for milking and/or lock-up times can exacerbate the problem. One answer is more water.
Additional water space can often be added in the return alley (Photo 1), within pens or in outdoor areas. Waterers have been successfully fabricated from large PVC piping, standard water troughs and plastic barrels. Water from plate coolers can provide additional supply. More dominant cows appear to favor waterers in the return alley which may reduce competitive pressure at waterers in the pens. Studies show that dairy cattle spend only 20 to 30 minutes per day drinking water but normally drink most of their water after milking and feeding (Osborne, et al, 2002). Increased water space can help alleviate the bottleneck in water access during preferred drinking times, which is compounded by heat stress.
A survey of 133 commercial dairies (Ensley, 2000) found that rolling herd average (RHA) milk yield was positively related to linear water space (+225 lbs./inch), to the use of water cups or fountains in addition to tanks (+989 lbs.), and to the regular cleaning of water devices versus never cleaned (+2,278 lbs.). A study of 22 Canadian free stall herds (Sova et al., 2013) reported that each additional one inch of linear water space was associated with two additional pounds of milk per day. In a study of 204 Norwegian free stall herds (Naess et al., 2011), milk yield of 1st lactation cows increased with more easily accessible water troughs. Across all lactations, yearly adjusted milk increased by 507 pounds/cow when available water space was greater than 3 inches/cow (80 percent of recommendation). These findings reinforce the value of ample water space, easy access and cleanliness.
Cows spend more time and drink more water from water troughs that are higher (24 vs. 12 inches) and with a larger surface area (12 vs 3 ft3) (Teixeira et al.,2006). Water depth and refill rate should maintain water volume during peak drinking times (no slurping sounds). Rails to prevent cattle from stepping into troughs (Photo 2) should allow at least 21 inches of head clearance for cows drinking (Smith et al., 2002). Depending on plumbing configurations, water intake can be monitored by water meters isolating pens or barns.
Water quality is addressed in excellent reviews (Beede, 2012; NASEM, 2021). Periodic water tests are worthwhile to detect any significant changes in quality. Elevated water nitrate had a negative effect on both RHA milk yield (-18 pounds), and calving interval and was associated with drilled wells less than 100 feet deep (Ensley, 2000). Although high levels (>3,000 ppm) of total dissolved solids (TDS) are cited as a concern for reduced performance, Moehlenpah et al. (2021) found that saline or brackish water up to 6,000 ppm TDS was well tolerated by beef cows and heifers. Heat stressed dairy cows produced more milk but similar yields of fat and protein when consuming water with 900 versus 3,400 ppm TDS while water consumption was not affected (Shapasand et al., 2010).
Elevated levels of sulfate and chloride can be a concern in lactating cows (Beede, 2012) and should be monitored. High levels of water sulfate can reduce trace mineral absorption. Performance and health of feedlot cattle consuming high sulfate water was improved when organically chelated zinc, copper and manganese were fed in place of inorganic sources (Vasquez-Anon et al., 2007). Water palatability can be reduced by elevated levels of manganese and iron (Beede, 2012). Algae growth in water tanks should be avoided through regular cleaning and by providing shade over outdoor waterers. Some species of blue-green algae can produce toxic levels of cyanogenic compounds, while other algae are simply unpalatable to cattle and can reduce water intake.
The 2021 National Research Council (NASEM) Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle has an excellent chapter on water requirements and dynamics in cattle that includes new predictions for water intake requirements of cows based on production level, diet and environment.
Unrestricted access to clean water is a crucial component of dairy cattle nutrition, health and performance, especially during heat stress. Location and design of water stations should consider cow numbers, stocking density, production level and natural behaviors to encourage optimum water intake. Don’t forget calves, heifers and dry cows as well.
Photo 1. Additional Water Space Added in Return Alley (PVC pipe)
Photo 2. Barriers should not restrict water intake, 21” clearance minimum
Photo 3. Open access to clean water at end of free stall
Photo 4. Limited size of water station due to gate swinging into cross alley
Photo 5. Cows will avoid dirty waterers when given a choice (Shutz et al., 2019)
Table 1. Water space available on North American commercial dairies (K.W. Luchterhand, Ph.D., Novus C.O.W.S.™ Program)
| Region |
No. of Herds |
Avg. Water Space (in) |
Std. Dev. (in) |
| Northern Mexico |
9 |
4.5 |
2.2 |
| Western U.S. |
111 |
3.9 |
1.8 |
| Southeast U.S. |
20 |
3.3 |
1.8 |
| Southwest U.S. |
18 |
3.2 |
1.3 |
| Eastern Canada |
18 |
2.7 |
1.8 |
| Northeast U.S. |
293 |
2.6 |
1.0 |
| Western Canada |
20 |
2.5 |
1.9 |
| Pacific Northwest U.S. |
81 |
2.5 |
0.9 |
| Midwest U.S. |
174 |
2.4 |
0.9 |
| Overall Data Set |
745 |
2.8 |
1.3 |
For more information, visit Novus International’s website
References
Beede, D.K., 2012. What can we do about water quality? Proc. Tri-State Dairy Nutrition Conf. p. 17-22. www.tristatedairy.org
Ensley, S.M., 2000. Relationships of drinking water quality to production and reproduction in dairy herds. Ph.D. Dissertation, Toxicology. Iowa State University.
LaPorta, J. and G.E. Dahl. 2022. Phenotypic and molecular signatures of fetal hyperthermia in dairy cows. Proc. Southwest Nutr. Conf., p. 63-69. www.sw-nc.com
McDowell, R.E., et al., 1969. Effect of Heat Stress on Energy and Water Utilization of Lactating Cows. J. Dairy Sci. 52:188-194.
Moehlenpah, A.N., 2021. Water and forage intake, diet digestibility, and blood parameters of beef cows and heifers consuming water with varying concentrations of total dissolved salts. J. Anim. Sci. 99:1-10.
Naess, G. et al., 2011. Layouts for small freestall dairy barns: Effect on milk yield for cows in different parities. J. Dairy Sci. 94:1256-1264.
Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 8th Edition. 2021. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. Nat. Acad. Press, Washington, D.C., www.nap.edu
Osborne, V.R., et al., Effects of heated drinking water on the production responses of lactating Holstein and Jersey cows. 2002. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 82:267-273.
Schutz, K.E. et al., 2019. Manure contamination of drinking water influences dairy cattle water intake and preference. Applied Anim. Behavior Sci. 217:16-20.
Shapasand, M., et al., 2012. Performance and Physiological Responses of Dairy Cattle to Water Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Under Heat Stress. J. Appl. Anim. Res. 38:165-168.
Smith, J.F. et al., 2002. Managing Heat Stress in Dairy Facilities. Proc. Am. Assoc. Bovine Pract. 71-76.
Sova, A.D., et al., 2013. Associations between herd-level feeding management practices, feed sorting and milk production in freestall dairy farms. J. Dairy Sci. 96:4759-4770.
Teixeira, D.L., 2006. Designing better water troughs: 2. Surface area and height, but not depth, influence dairy cows’ preference. Applied Anim. Behavior Sci. 96:169-175.
Tsai, Y-C, et al., 2020. Assessment of dairy cow heat stress by monitoring drinking behavior using an embedded imaging system. Biosystems Engineering. 199:97-108.
Vazquez-Anon, M. 2007. Case Study: Supplementation of chelated forms of zinc, copper, and manganese to feedlot cattle with access to drinking water with high sulfate concentration. Prof. Anim. Sci. (Applied Anim. Sci.) 23:58-63.
Progressive Dairy
With dairy margins under pressure from increased feed, fuel and crop costs, managers are looking for low-cost ways to improve overall efficiency of milk production. Water is the most essential and least costly component of the diet. We keep a close eye on dry matter intake for signs that something is “off” while water intake continues mostly unnoticed in the background. Practical steps can be taken to ensure that water intake is not limiting for cow comfort and milk production.
Heat stress is a drain on performance, reducing feed intake, milk production and feed efficiency. Furthermore, heat stress of dry and lactating cows has been shown to reduce performance of the cow, her daughters, and granddaughters (La Porta and Dahl, 2022). Water requirements increase 30% or more during heat stress, and the cow’s water based internal cooling system requires full hydration to operate at full capacity. Cows cannot remain fully hydrated if water intake is compromised by lack of access, flow or quality.
Water plays a crucial role in heat dissipation through expiration (lungs), evaporation (skin) and excretion (urine) from the body. The water molecule has a uniquely high heat capacity, the ability to absorb and transfer heat, making it ideal for both internal and external cooling of cows.
A classic study, McDowell et al., 1969, found that early lactation cows under heat stress (90 OF, THI=75) had increased rectal temperature, reduced feed intake and fecal water output, a 28 percent increase in water intake and a 50-60 percent increase in skin surface and respiratory evaporation. In addition, the efficient of use of digested energy for milk production was reduced by 30 percent.
The metabolic heat load of today’s high producing cow is significantly greater than in 1969, so optimum water consumption is even more important in combatting heat stress. Heat stress increases the water requirement of cows by 30 percent or more (NRC, 2022). High producing (99 lbs/day) cows require about 30 gallons of water under temperate conditions and 40 gallons or more under heat stress (NRC, 2021), with an increase in the length and frequency of drinking bouts (Tsai et al., 2020).
Heat stress is compounded by increased stocking density. Kansas State workers (Smith et al. 2002) reported that increasing stocking density from 100 to 130 percent of capacity reduced available water space from 3.6 in/cow to 2.8 in/cow in 4-row free stall barns and from 2.25 in/cow to 1.7 in/cow in 6-row barns. Most expert sources cite 3.5 inches of linear water space per cow as adequate, but farm cow comfort assessments have found that, on average, this goal is not being met (Table 1). As resources per cow shrink, aggressive behaviors by dominant cows increase, including dominant behavior around waterers. Subordinate cows and 1st lactation cows are most affected. Excessive time away from pen for milking and/or lock-up times can exacerbate the problem. One answer is more water.
Additional water space can often be added in the return alley (Photo 1), within pens or in outdoor areas. Waterers have been successfully fabricated from large PVC piping, standard water troughs and plastic barrels. Water from plate coolers can provide additional supply. More dominant cows appear to favor waterers in the return alley which may reduce competitive pressure at waterers in the pens. Studies show that dairy cattle spend only 20 to 30 minutes per day drinking water but normally drink most of their water after milking and feeding (Osborne, et al, 2002). Increased water space can help alleviate the bottleneck in water access during preferred drinking times, which is compounded by heat stress.
A survey of 133 commercial dairies (Ensley, 2000) found that rolling herd average (RHA) milk yield was positively related to linear water space (+225 lbs./inch), to the use of water cups or fountains in addition to tanks (+989 lbs.), and to the regular cleaning of water devices versus never cleaned (+2,278 lbs.). A study of 22 Canadian free stall herds (Sova et al., 2013) reported that each additional one inch of linear water space was associated with two additional pounds of milk per day. In a study of 204 Norwegian free stall herds (Naess et al., 2011), milk yield of 1st lactation cows increased with more easily accessible water troughs. Across all lactations, yearly adjusted milk increased by 507 pounds/cow when available water space was greater than 3 inches/cow (80 percent of recommendation). These findings reinforce the value of ample water space, easy access and cleanliness.
Cows spend more time and drink more water from water troughs that are higher (24 vs. 12 inches) and with a larger surface area (12 vs 3 ft3) (Teixeira et al.,2006). Water depth and refill rate should maintain water volume during peak drinking times (no slurping sounds). Rails to prevent cattle from stepping into troughs (Photo 2) should allow at least 21 inches of head clearance for cows drinking (Smith et al., 2002). Depending on plumbing configurations, water intake can be monitored by water meters isolating pens or barns.
Water quality is addressed in excellent reviews (Beede, 2012; NASEM, 2021). Periodic water tests are worthwhile to detect any significant changes in quality. Elevated water nitrate had a negative effect on both RHA milk yield (-18 pounds), and calving interval and was associated with drilled wells less than 100 feet deep (Ensley, 2000). Although high levels (>3,000 ppm) of total dissolved solids (TDS) are cited as a concern for reduced performance, Moehlenpah et al. (2021) found that saline or brackish water up to 6,000 ppm TDS was well tolerated by beef cows and heifers. Heat stressed dairy cows produced more milk but similar yields of fat and protein when consuming water with 900 versus 3,400 ppm TDS while water consumption was not affected (Shapasand et al., 2010).
Elevated levels of sulfate and chloride can be a concern in lactating cows (Beede, 2012) and should be monitored. High levels of water sulfate can reduce trace mineral absorption. Performance and health of feedlot cattle consuming high sulfate water was improved when organically chelated zinc, copper and manganese were fed in place of inorganic sources (Vasquez-Anon et al., 2007). Water palatability can be reduced by elevated levels of manganese and iron (Beede, 2012). Algae growth in water tanks should be avoided through regular cleaning and by providing shade over outdoor waterers. Some species of blue-green algae can produce toxic levels of cyanogenic compounds, while other algae are simply unpalatable to cattle and can reduce water intake.
The 2021 National Research Council (NASEM) Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle has an excellent chapter on water requirements and dynamics in cattle that includes new predictions for water intake requirements of cows based on production level, diet and environment.
Unrestricted access to clean water is a crucial component of dairy cattle nutrition, health and performance, especially during heat stress. Location and design of water stations should consider cow numbers, stocking density, production level and natural behaviors to encourage optimum water intake. Don’t forget calves, heifers and dry cows as well.
Photo 1. Additional Water Space Added in Return Alley (PVC pipe)
Photo 2. Barriers should not restrict water intake, 21” clearance minimum
Photo 3. Open access to clean water at end of free stall
Photo 4. Limited size of water station due to gate swinging into cross alley
Photo 5. Cows will avoid dirty waterers when given a choice (Shutz et al., 2019)
Table 1. Water space available on North American commercial dairies (K.W. Luchterhand, Ph.D., Novus C.O.W.S.™ Program)
For more information, visit Novus International’s website
References
Beede, D.K., 2012. What can we do about water quality? Proc. Tri-State Dairy Nutrition Conf. p. 17-22. www.tristatedairy.org
Ensley, S.M., 2000. Relationships of drinking water quality to production and reproduction in dairy herds. Ph.D. Dissertation, Toxicology. Iowa State University.
LaPorta, J. and G.E. Dahl. 2022. Phenotypic and molecular signatures of fetal hyperthermia in dairy cows. Proc. Southwest Nutr. Conf., p. 63-69. www.sw-nc.com
McDowell, R.E., et al., 1969. Effect of Heat Stress on Energy and Water Utilization of Lactating Cows. J. Dairy Sci. 52:188-194.
Moehlenpah, A.N., 2021. Water and forage intake, diet digestibility, and blood parameters of beef cows and heifers consuming water with varying concentrations of total dissolved salts. J. Anim. Sci. 99:1-10.
Naess, G. et al., 2011. Layouts for small freestall dairy barns: Effect on milk yield for cows in different parities. J. Dairy Sci. 94:1256-1264.
Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 8th Edition. 2021. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. Nat. Acad. Press, Washington, D.C., www.nap.edu
Osborne, V.R., et al., Effects of heated drinking water on the production responses of lactating Holstein and Jersey cows. 2002. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 82:267-273.
Schutz, K.E. et al., 2019. Manure contamination of drinking water influences dairy cattle water intake and preference. Applied Anim. Behavior Sci. 217:16-20.
Shapasand, M., et al., 2012. Performance and Physiological Responses of Dairy Cattle to Water Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Under Heat Stress. J. Appl. Anim. Res. 38:165-168.
Smith, J.F. et al., 2002. Managing Heat Stress in Dairy Facilities. Proc. Am. Assoc. Bovine Pract. 71-76.
Sova, A.D., et al., 2013. Associations between herd-level feeding management practices, feed sorting and milk production in freestall dairy farms. J. Dairy Sci. 96:4759-4770.
Teixeira, D.L., 2006. Designing better water troughs: 2. Surface area and height, but not depth, influence dairy cows’ preference. Applied Anim. Behavior Sci. 96:169-175.
Tsai, Y-C, et al., 2020. Assessment of dairy cow heat stress by monitoring drinking behavior using an embedded imaging system. Biosystems Engineering. 199:97-108.
Vazquez-Anon, M. 2007. Case Study: Supplementation of chelated forms of zinc, copper, and manganese to feedlot cattle with access to drinking water with high sulfate concentration. Prof. Anim. Sci. (Applied Anim. Sci.) 23:58-63.